Some Noteworthy Figures of the Ancient World
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Human civilizations have existed for 6,000 years or longer. During that time, countless great individuals contributed to the building and evolution of history. Unfortunately, most builders of civilization are now forgotten --- inventors, artists, scientists, leaders and followers who played some pivotal role in the development of institutions, traditions, or beliefs that have been important to humanity. In many cases, we have no knowledge of who those benefactors were; others may be remembered but their achievements cannot be separated from those of other individuals. This is true of most of the people on this list, except for the political leaders --- who are not necessarily the most significant figures in a society. The inadequacy of our knowledge makes it almost impossible to list the most important figures of the past. Even the names of many rulers and tribal leaders are unknown. Authorship of even the greatest creative works of antiquity --- including the Rigveda, Book of Songs, Greek myths, "Homeric" epic poetry, and parts of the Bible --- is unknown or disputed. Some great geniuses of music and the arts prior to 1400 are now nameless, though their influence today is arguably greater than that of most recent artists. The artisans who created many beautiful artworks --- Attic sculpture and Sung porcelain and Syrian glassware --- are mostly unknown. The names of many great engineers and architects are lost, including the designers of pyramids and sailing ships, water-mills and canals, Indian temples, Islamic mosques, and European cathedrals. So are the inventors of hand tools and plumbing, languages and lenses, foodstuffs and fabrics, moneylending and metallurgy and music, spices and stoves and soap. Most of the world's religions, even those of relatively recent origin, are founded on much older beliefs which predate recorded memory. Some early scientific speculators are remembered (especially the Greek natural philosophers), but ancient contributors of more tangible inventions --- in technology, agriculture, social organization --- are anonymous. And the social influence of women is little represented in the historical record. So the list below is very unbalanced, but it can still have the purpose of preventing even more from being forgotten... which is a worthy purpose in a time of poor historical literacy. In spite of the shortcomings of this list, a few conclusions can be drawn from it. First, the disproportionate cultural influence of Western Europe is recent; before the late Middle Ages, European innovation was matched in several other parts of the world. However, the list of human achievements since 1400 is completely dominated by Europeans. Second, great accomplishments tend to happen in clusters, reflecting not only our incomplete historical record but the unique importance of certain times and places. Mesopotamia and Egypt beginning in the third millennium BC; the Mediterranean, especially Phoenicia, a thousand years later; Athens and other Greek states from the 6th to 4th century BC; China from the 6th century BC intermittently through the T'ang, Five Dynasties, and Sung periods; Rome from the 3rd century BC until the 2nd century AD; North India from the 3rd century to the 13th; Italy during the Renaissance; England beginning about 1550; and the United States since 1776 are examples. Major figures are in regular print, minor or questionable figures in italics. |
|
Menes |
unknown |
c. 3100 BC? |
Name given for first king of unified Egypt, founder of Memphis; existence uncertain |
|
Veda Vyasa |
unknown (India) |
3000 BC? |
Sage, possibly apocryphal or composite of multiple individuals; by tradition, organized Vedas and recorded Mahabharata |
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Imenhotep |
Kemet (Third Dynasty) |
c. 27th century BC |
Minister, oversaw construction of first major Egyptian pyramid for the pharoah Djoser |
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Sneferu, |
Kemet |
27th-26th century BC |
Rulers during early height of Egypt |
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Sharrum-kin (Sargon) |
Kish |
24th century BC |
Akkadian ruler who conquered Sumer, spread cultural influence |
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Hammurabi |
Babylon |
c. 18th century BC |
Ruler of Babylon, notable for laws, literature, mathematics |
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Thutmose I, |
Kemet |
16th-15th century BC |
Pharoahs who expanded Egyptian empire, added to temples, monuments |
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Amenhotep III (Neb-Ma'et-Ra), Amenhotep IV (Akhnaton) |
Kemet |
15th-14th century BC |
Pharoahs at height of New Kingdom's power, prosperity; Akhnaton's sun-worship cult was early but unsuccessful monotheistic religion |
|
Thutmose |
Kemet |
14th century BC |
Sculptor with naturalistic style |
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Moses |
Kemet |
13th century BC? |
Leader of Israelites; traditional author of Pentateuch, among history's greatest written works |
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David, Solomon |
Israel, Judah-Israel |
10th century BC |
Rulers of Israel and Judah; by tradition, wrote brilliant books of the Bible |
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Homer |
unknown (Ionia?) |
prior to 8th century BC? |
Greatest epics of pre-classical era are attributed to him; possibly multiple writers |
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Baudhayana |
unknown |
9th century BC? |
One of several authors of Indian texts including mathematical discoveries |
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Hesiod |
Boeotia? |
c. 800 BC |
Epic poet |
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Ashurbanipal |
Assyria |
7th century BC |
King, conqueror who sacked Egypt; his great library was recovered in 19th century |
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Thales, Anaximander |
Miletus |
7th-6th centuries BC |
Early speculators in philosophy, science; Thales is first known natural philosopher and inventor of mathematical proofs |
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Nabopolassar, Nabu-kudurri-usur II (Nebuchadrezzar) |
Babylonia |
7th-6th centuries BC |
Babylonian rulers during its period of greatest dominance |
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Sappho |
Lesbos? |
c. 612 BC-? |
Great poet whose work survives in fragments |
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Solon |
Athens |
c. 600 BC |
Archon, codified Athenian law |
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Chersiphron (of Knossos) |
unknown (Knossos?) |
7th-6th centuries BC |
According to sources, architect who built important Ionic temples, along with Rhoecus and Theodoros of Samos, others |
| Vardhamana (Mahavira) | Vrjji (Licchavi) | c. 599-c. 527 BC | Reformer, founder of Jainism |
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Pythagoras |
Samos |
c. 580-c. 500 BC |
Founded influential order combining mathematics, mysticism |
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Siddhartha Gautama (Gautama Buddha) |
Sakya lands |
c. 563-c. 483 BC |
Ascetic, sage who founded one of world's great religions |
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Lao-Tzu |
Ch'u? |
6th or 4th century BC? |
Traditional founder of Taoism, one of most important religious philosophies; author of Taoist works |
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K'ung Ch'iu (Confucius) |
Lu |
c. 551-479 BC |
Brilliant writer, moral philosopher whose teachings have shaped and stabilized Chinese society, philosophy for millennia |
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Eupalinus |
unknown |
6th century BC |
According to sources, engineer who built tunnel of Samos, aqueducts |
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Heraclitus |
Achaemenid Empire (Ephesus) |
c. 535-475 BC |
Pre-Socratic natural philosopher |
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Parmenides |
Elea |
6th century BC |
Early philosopher, explored metaphysics |
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Exekias, Douris, Euthymedes |
Athens? |
6th century BC |
Master potters, vase painters whose works survive |
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Aeschylus, |
Athens (Attica) |
525-456 BC, |
Dramatists; writers of tragedies unequalled until Shakespeare |
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Anaxagoras |
Achaemenid Empire (Ionia)? |
c. 500-c. 428 BC |
Early physical theorist, philosopher |
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Callicrates, Ictinus, Mnesicles |
Athens? |
5th century BC |
Among many great architects of Greece; designed Athenian public buildings |
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Pericles |
Athens |
c. 495-429 BC |
Orator, political leader of Athens during its peak |
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Thucydides |
Athens? |
5th century BC |
Early historian |
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Myron, Phidias, Polyclitos |
Attica, Athens, Argos? |
5th century BC |
Greatest sculptors in history; Phidias oversaw construction of Athenian monumental sculpture; most statues known only from copies |
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Leucippus, Democritus |
Achaemenid Empire (Miletus?), |
5th century BC |
Atomist philosophers; materialism was out of step with best Greek thought, but theory of "atoms" a lucky guess |
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Socrates |
Athens |
c. 470-399 BC |
Perhaps history's greatest critical thinker; little is known about him except from Plato, Aristotle |
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Hippocrates |
Delian League (Cos) |
c. 460 BC-? |
Theorist of medicine |
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Aristophanes |
Athens? |
c. 450-c. 385 BC |
Comedic playwright |
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Plato |
Athens |
c. 427-c. 347 BC |
One of history's greatest philosophers, along with Confucius, Aristotle and Augustine; profoundly influenced subsequent theology, philosophy and literature |
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Eudoxus |
Cnidus |
c. 400-c. 347 BC |
Early mathematician, scientist, geographer |
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Aristotle |
Chalkidian League |
384-322 BC |
Brilliant thinker, writer who summarized and advanced Greek inquiries into logic, ethics, cosmology, natural science, and political theory |
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Philip II, |
Macedon |
382-336 BC, |
Conquered the Greek states and Persian Empire, bridging Europe and the Near East; founded Alexandria |
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Theophrastus |
Athenian Empire (Lesbos) |
c. 371-c. 287 BC |
Wrote early descriptive works on natural sciences |
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Praxiteles, |
Athens, Sicyon |
4th century BC |
Of many sculptors of genius in ancient Greece and the Near East, among the few known today |
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Chuang-tzu |
Song? |
4th century BC |
One of the most important Taoist writers (or more than one) |
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Appius Claudius Caecus |
Rome |
4th century BC |
Consul, censor; built roads and aqueducts |
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Herophilus |
Bithynia |
c. 355-c. 280 BC |
Physician; studied human anatomy |
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Chandragupta Maurya, Asoka |
Magadha, |
c. 4th century BC, |
Emperors who conquered and ruled much of India; promoted spread of Buddhism, the arts; established political and social customs |
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Zeno of Citium |
Achaemenid Empire (Cyprus) |
c. 334-c. 262 BC |
Founder of Stoicism, most important school of Greek philosophy; continued by Chrysippus and others |
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Euclid |
unknown |
c. 300 BC |
Wrote works containing axioms of geometry which form part of the basis of Western mathematics |
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Hsun-tzu |
Qi? |
3rd century BC |
Pragmatic philosopher who added to Confucianism |
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Archimedes |
Syracuse |
c. 287-212 BC |
One of greatest mathematicians and inventors in history; described buoyancy, lever; developed pulley, screw pump; made advances in geometry |
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Eratosthenes |
Cyrenaica |
c. 276-c. 194 BC |
Scientist, mathematician, geographer; accurately estimated size of Earth |
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Aristarchus |
Egypt (Samos) |
c. 270 BC |
Believed in heliocentric solar system, estimated astronomical dimensions |
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Apollonius (of Perga) |
Ptolemaic Kingdom (Pamphylia) |
c. 261 BC |
Mathematician, contributed to geometry |
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Cheng (Shih Huang Ti) |
Ch'in |
259-210 BC |
Warlord, emperor; conquered Chinese states, united China, began public works; but his tyranny doomed his dynasty |
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Philo of Byzantium |
Byzantium? |
3rd -2nd century BC |
Inventor, engineer whose writings describe Greek technology, mechanics |
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Hipparchus |
Bithynia |
2nd century BC |
Astronomer, mathematician, geographer; estimated distance to Moon, compiled trigonometric tables, improved astrolabe |
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Wu Ti |
Han |
2nd-1st century BC |
Emperor during expansion of Han Empire through east Asia; established Confucianism as state religion |
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Marcus Tullius Cicero |
Rome (Arpinum) |
106-43 BC |
Poor politician, but great orator, aphorist and writer on ethics |
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Gaius Julius Caesar |
Rome |
100-44 BC |
Dictator of Rome; conquered Gaul, commissioned Julian calendar |
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Gaius Octavius (Augustus Caesar) |
Rome |
63 BC-14 |
Established Roman imperium and crafted institutions of history's greatest empire |
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Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa |
Rome? |
63-12 BC |
Consul, general, engineer; served Augustus Caesar as deputy, built public works |
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Vitruvius (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio) |
Rome? |
1st century BC? |
Writer; books on Roman architecture and engineering influenced Renaissance |
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Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso) |
Rome (Sulmona) |
43 BC-18 |
Poet |
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Philo (of Alexandria) |
Roman Empire (Egypt) |
c. 30 BC-c. 40 |
Philosopher; writings combined Greek philosophy and Judaism |
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Jesus Christ |
Judaea |
c. 4 BC-c. 29 |
Little confirmation exists of historical details, but Gospels (especially Matthew, Mark) illuminate His greatness |
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Paul (of Tarsus) |
Roman Empire (Cilicia) |
1st century |
Brilliant theologian who assembled much of Christian thought, both good (moralistic) and bad (dualistic) |
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Pedanius Dioscorides |
Roman Empire (Cilicia) |
1st century |
Described plant-derived medicines |
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Akiba ben Joseph |
Roman Empire (Judaea) |
c. 40-135 |
One of leaders of rabbis who assembled and interpreted Talmud |
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Plutarch |
Roman Empire (Achaea) |
c. 48-c. 122 |
Writer, biographer |
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Epictetus |
Roman Empire (Asia?) |
1st century |
Stoic philosopher; his works were recorded by Arrian |
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Rabirius, Apollodorus of Damascus |
Roman Empire |
1st century |
Among many important (but now mostly unknown) Roman architects |
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Menelaus |
Roman Empire? |
1st-2nd century? |
Mathematician; possibly early developer of spherical trigonometry |
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Trajan (M. Ulpius Traianus) |
Roman Empire (Baetica) |
52-117 |
Emperor, expanded Roman Empire to its maximum extent |
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Ts'ai Lun |
Han Empire |
1st-2nd century? |
By tradition, first to use paper for writing; invention of paper dates from 2nd century BC |
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Kanishka |
Kushan Kingdom |
1st-2nd century? |
Kushan king, ruled central Asia and north India, promoted spread of Buddhism |
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Judah haNasi |
Roman Empire (Judaea) |
2nd century |
One of compilers of Jewish Oral Law |
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Marcus Aurelius |
Roman Empire |
121-180 |
One of history's few philosopher-kings |
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Diophantus |
Roman Empire (Egypt?) |
3rd century |
Important mathematician; investigated number theory, algebraic equations |
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Plotinus |
Roman Empire (Egypt?) |
205-270 |
Important philosopher who carried Platonism into Christian era |
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Constantine I |
Roman Empire (Moesia) |
c. 285-337 |
Emperor; rebuilt Byzantium, churches; his adoption of Christianity was pivotal moment in history |
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Chandra Gupta I, |
unknown, Gupta Empire |
3rd-5th centuries |
Emperors of northern India; Gupta empire nurtured literature and architecture, influenced subsequent dynasties |
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Pappus of Alexandria |
Roman Empire (Egypt?) |
4th century |
Mathematician, geographer; his works preserved Greek geometry |
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Augustine (of Hippo) |
Roman Empire (Numidia) |
354-430 |
One of history's most important writers, thinkers; his ideas created Christian doctrine, opposed religious dualism |
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T'ao Ch'ien (T'ao Yuan-ming) |
Chu |
c. 365-427 |
One of great Chinese poets; important "nature poet," with contemporary Hsieh Ling-yun |
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Kalidasa |
Gupta Empire? |
4th or 5th century |
Poet, dramatist |
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Clovis (Chlodovecchus), Clotilda (Chrotechildis) |
Kingdom of the Franks (Tournai), Kingdom of the Burgundians |
c. 466-511, |
Frankish rulers; Clovis conquered much of present-day France; established law; influenced by Clotilda, spread Catholicism |
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Aryabhata |
Chera Empire? |
c. 476-c. 550 |
Summarized Indian mathematics, astronomy of his time, including some mistakes, but also major advances |
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Justinian I (Flavius Anicius Justinianus) |
Roman (Byzantine) Empire (Taurisium) |
483-565 |
Emperor whose mixed legacy includes legal codes, great architecture, and short-lived conquests |
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Anthemius of Tralles, Isidorus of Miletus |
Roman (Byzantine) Empire (Anatolia) |
5th-6th centuries |
Builders of Hagia Sophia; most Byzantine architects unknown |
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Imru' al-Qays |
Kindah |
c. 500-544 |
Inventor of Arabian ode poetry |
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Gregory I |
Italy |
c. 540-604 |
Pope; strengthened papal influence, developed Catholic institutions and doctrine; improved political stability in Italy |
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Yang Chien (Wen Ti) |
Wei (Sui) |
541-604 |
Emperor; reunified China; oversaw construction of capitals, Great Walls |
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Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah ibn Abd al-Muttalib |
Hejaz (Mecca) |
c. 570-632 |
Prophet and founder of Islam, recorder of the Qur'an; ignited Arab expansion continued by 'Umar, Uthman, and the Umayyads |
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Shotoku Taishi |
Japan |
574-622 |
One of rulers who brought Chinese cultural institutions to Japan |
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'Umar ibn al-Khattab (Omar I) |
Hejaz (Yathrib) |
c. 586-644 |
Caliph; directed conquests of Persian empire, Syria, Egypt |
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T'ai-tsung (Li Shimin) |
Sui |
c. 598-649 |
First strong emperor of T'ang empire |
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Brahmagupta |
unknown |
c. 598-668 |
Great mathematician whose works incorporated modern numeral system |
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'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, al-Walid I |
Caliphate (Arabia) |
c. 647-705, |
Caliphs; reorganized Arab empire; oversaw development of agriculture, construction of mosques, public works |
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Pepin II, |
Austrasia |
c. 635-714, |
Frankish kings; reunified France, repelled Muslim invasion, encouraged Christian missionaries in Germany; Pepin III retook papal territory from Lombards |
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Mahendra-Varman I, Narsimha-Varman I (Rajasimha) |
Pallava Empire |
7th-8th century |
Rulers of Pallava dynasty, built rock temples at Kanchi, Mamallapuram that influenced later Indian architecture |
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Wang Wei |
T'ang Empire (Ch'i) |
699-c. 761 |
Influential painter, poet; one of many notable T'ang painters (including Wu Tao-tzu, Li Sishun, and others) and poets (with Tu Fu, Li Po, Po Chu-i, others) |
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Abd al-Rahman I |
Caliphate (Syria?) |
8th century |
Founder of Umayyad emirate in Spain, established capital at Cordoba |
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Tu Fu |
Tang |
c. 712-770 |
Poet; his poems are considered among the best in world literature |
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Charles I (Charlemagne) |
Austrasia? |
c. 742-814 |
Frankish king; conquered Lombards, Saxons; founded Holy Roman Empire, helped to Christianize western Europe |
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Odo of Metz |
Francia Occidental? |
8th-9th century |
Designed Palatine Chapel, one of notable buildings (though modest by later standards) of Carolingian empire |
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Mohammed ibn Musa al-Khwarezmi |
Abbasid Caliphate |
8th-9th century |
Mathematician; employed Indian numeral system and notation, algebraic methods |
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Shankara |
unknown |
c. 780-c. 820 |
Indian philosopher; developed Hindu philosophy based on Upanishads |
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Aelfred (the Great) |
Wessex |
848-899 |
Saxon king; ended Danish rule in England, compiled legal code |
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Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Harrani as-Sabi al-Battani |
Abbasid Caliphate |
c. 850-c. 923 |
Mathematician who developed trigonometry |
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Rudaki (Abu Abdullah Ja'far ibn Mohammed) |
Abbasid Caliphate (Khurasan) |
c. 859-941 |
One of great Persian poets |
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Ching Hao (Jing Hao), Kuan T'ung (Guan Tong), Li Ch'eng, Fan Kuan |
Liang |
9th-10th century |
Among the great masters of Chinese landscape painting |
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Daksa |
Mataram |
10th century |
King; built temples of Prambanan, one of greatest expressions of Hindu architecture |
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Otto I (the Great) |
Holy Roman Empire (Francia Orientalis) |
912-973 |
King, Holy Roman emperor; repulsed Magyar invasion; consolidated German kingdom; fostered stability, prosperity in central Europe |
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Chao K'uang-yin (T'ai-tsu) |
Later T'ang? |
927-976 |
Established Sung (Song) dynasty which reunified, modernized China |
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Ciao Wei-yo |
Chou? |
10th century |
Engineer, possible inventor of locks for canals |
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Abul Wafa Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn Ismail Buzjani |
Abbasid Caliphate (Khurasan) |
c. 940-997 |
Mathematician who developed trigonometry |
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Pi Sheng |
Sung Empire? |
10th-11th century |
Traditional inventor of movable type; Chinese block printing dates from 6th century |
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Odilo, Hugh |
Kingdom of the Franks? |
c. 962-1049, |
Abbots of Cluny; directed reconstruction of abbey (designed by Gunzo), which widely influenced Romanesque architecture |
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Nizam al-Mulk |
Khurasan |
c. 1018-1092 |
Persian (Seljuq) vizier; directed building of mosques, madrasas; wrote political treatise |
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Chang T'sai (Zhangzai), |
Sung Empire |
c. 1020-1077, |
Important Neo-Confucian philosophers |
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William I |
Normandy |
c. 1028-1087 |
Conqueror of England; established English monarchy, law and society |
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Shen Kuo |
Song |
1031-1095 century |
Public official, writer and natural scientist who investigated astronomy, geology and technology |
|
Anawrahta, |
Bagan |
11th-12th century |
Rulers of Burma who fostered building period, spread of Buddhism in southeast Asia |
|
Suger |
Kingdom of the Franks |
1081-1151 |
Abbot, regent of successful French king, Louis VI; directed rebuilding of monastery of St. Denis, perhaps the first Gothic church |
|
Suryavarman II |
Khmer Empire |
c. 1113-c. 1150 |
Khmer god-king, built Angkor Wat |
|
Bhaskara |
Chalukya Kingdom? |
c. 1114-c. 1185 |
Mathematician who developed trigonometry |
|
Temujin (Genghiz Khan) |
Mongolia |
c. 1155-1227 |
Warlord, ruler whose conquests spread Chinese cultural influence to Europe |
|
Alexander Neckam |
England |
1157-1217 |
Schoolman, first European writer to describe Chinese magnetic compass |
|
Leonardo Pisano (Fibonacci) |
Pisa |
c. 1170-c. 1250 |
Scholar, introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals in Europe, investigated number theory |
|
Henry de Bracton |
England |
c. 1200?-1268 |
Judge, wrote compilation of English common law |
|
Nasir al-Din Tusi |
Khwarezm |
c. 1201-1274 |
Scientist and mathematician |
|
Kublai Khan |
Mongol Empire |
1215-1294 |
Established Yuan dynasty; supported public building, culture |
|
Rudolf I |
Holy Roman Empire (Breisgau) |
1218-1291 |
Consolidated German lands that later formed core of Habsburg empire |
|
Niccolo Pisano |
Apulia and Sicily |
c. 1220-c. 1283 |
Sculptor, reintroduced classical influences |
|
Thomas Aquinas |
Apulia and Sicily |
1225-1274 |
Catholic theologian, poet; incorporated Aristotelian metaphysics into Christian doctrine |
|
Arnolfo di Cambio |
Florence? |
c. 1245-c. 1308 |
Sculptor, architect; built Florentine buildings; one of many notable architects of Italian late Gothic and Renaissance |
|
Amir Khusrau Dehlawi |
Sultanate of Delhi |
1253-1325 |
Sufi poet, musician; by tradition, helped to invent Hindustani classical music |
|
Osman I |
Sogut |
c. 1258-1326 |
Warrior, founder of Ottoman Turkish empire |
|
Dante Alighieri |
Florence |
1265-1321 |
Greatest poet of late-medieval Europe |
|
Giotto di Bondone |
Florence |
c. 1267-1337 |
Painter, architect; improved on Byzantine painting techniques and paved way for Renaissance |
|
Philippe de Vitry |
France |
1291-1361 |
Composer, wrote treatise on musical notation |
|
Jacopo de' Dondi |
Padua |
14th century |
One of builders of early mechanical clocks |
|
Giovanni Boccaccio |
France |
1313-1375 |
Writer; anticipated modern literary forms |
|
Nicole d� Oresme |
France |
1323-1382 |
Bishop, counselor, scholar; anticipated discoveries in geometry, mechanics |
|
Hafiz (Shams ud-din Mohammed) |
Iran |
1326-1396 |
One of great (though overly mystical) Islamic poets |
|
Timur |
Transoxiana |
1336-1405 |
Conqueror who established empire in Persia, central Asia notable for arts, literature |